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Torbernite

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Hagendorf South Pegmatite (Cornelia Mine; Hagendorf South Open Cut), Hagendorf, Waidhaus, Vohenstrauß, Oberpfälzer Wald, Upper Palatinate, Bavaria, Germany
© Christian Rewitzer

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Formula:
Cu(UO
 
2
)
 
2
(PO
 
4
)
 
2
·12H
 
2
O
System:TetragonalColour:Emerald-green, ...
Lustre:Sub-Adamantine, Vitreous, Waxy, PearlyHardness:2 - 2½
Name:Named after Torbern Olof Bergmann (1735-1784), Professor of Chemistry and Physics, University of Uppsala (Sweden).


Autunite Group.

A secondary mineral found in the oxidized zones of some uraniferous copper deposits.
Often dehydrated to metatorbernite.

Classification of Torbernite

IMA status:Valid - first described prior to 1959 (pre-IMA) - "Grandfathered"
Strunz 8th edition ID:7/E.01-70
Nickel-Strunz 10th (pending) edition ID:8.EB.05

8 : PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, VANADATES
E : Uranyl phosphates and arsenates
B : UO2:RO4 = 1:1
Dana 8th edition ID:40.2a.13.1

40 : HYDRATED NORMAL PHOSPHATES,ARSENATES AND VANADATES
2a : AB2(XO4)2·xH2O, containing (UO2)2+
Hey's CIM Ref.:19.11.10

19 : Phosphates
11 : Phosphates of U
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Type Occurrence of Torbernite

Type Locality:Johanngeorgenstadt, Erzgebirge, Saxony, Germany
Year of Discovery:1772

Occurrences of Torbernite

Geological Setting:Uncommon mineral in secondary zone of copper bearing uranium deposits.

Physical Properties of Torbernite

Lustre:Sub-Adamantine, Vitreous, Waxy, Pearly
Diaphaneity (Transparency):Transparent, Translucent
Comment:Pearly on cleavages, dull when dehydrated.
Colour:Emerald-green, grass-green. leek green, siskin green, apple green
Streak:Pale green
Hardness (Mohs):2 - 2½
Tenacity:Brittle
Cleavage:Perfect
Perfect on {001} micaceous, indistinct on {100}
Density (measured):3.22 g/cm3

Crystallography of Torbernite

Crystal System:Tetragonal
Class (H-M):4/mmm (4/m 2/m 2/m) - Ditetragonal Dipyramidal
Space Group:I4/mmm (I4/m 2/m 2/m)
Cell Parameters:a = 7.0267(4) Å, c = 20.807(2) Å
Ratio:a:c = 1 : 2.961
Unit Cell Volume:V 1027.3 ų
Z:2
Morphology:Crystals thin to thick tabular, square or octagonal, with prominent {001}, {011}, {110}; rarely pyramidal {111}. Commonly forms subparallel aggregates, foliated, micaceous, scaly.
Twinning:Rare on {110}.
Comment:Data for synthetic crystal. Other cell data reported: 7.025, 20.63 A.
Crystal Atlas:
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Torbernite no.25 - Goldschmidt (1913-1926)
Torbernite no.36 - Goldschmidt (1913-1926)
Torbernite no.38 - Goldschmidt (1913-1926)

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Structure
  Reference
Locock A J Burns P C (2003) Crystal structures and synthesis of the copper-dominant members of the autunite and meta-autunite groups: Tobernite, zeunerite, metatorbernite and metazeunerite. The Canadian Mineralogist 41:489-502.

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More Crystal Structures
Click here to view more crystal structures at the American Mineralogist Crystal Structure Database

Epitaxial Relationships of Torbernite

Epitaxial Minerals:
ZeuneriteUranospiniteBassetiteAutunite
Epitaxi Comments:Parallel growths with autunite are common. Parallel growths with Uranospinite, Zeunerite and bassetite are documented.

Optical Data of Torbernite

Type:Uniaxial (-)
RI values: nω = 1.590 - 1.592 nε = 1.581 - 1.582
Maximum Birefringence:δ = 0.009 - 0.010

Chart shows birefringence interference colour range (at 30µm thickness) and does not take into account mineral colouration.
Surface Relief:Moderate
Pleochroism:Visible
Comments:O = Dark green to sky blue
E = Green

Chemical Properties of Torbernite

Formula:
Cu(UO
 
2
)
 
2
(PO
 
4
)
 
2
·12H
 
2
O
Essential elements:Cu, H, O, P, U
All elements listed in formula:Cu, H, O, P, U
Common Impurities:Ca,Ba,Mg

Relationship of Torbernite to other Species

Related to:
  • Autunite Group
    • Common Associates:
    ZeuneriteUraniniteMetatorberniteLimoniteAutunite
    Related Minerals - Nickel-Strunz Grouping):
    8.EB.05Autunite
    Ca(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		·11H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.05Heinrichite
    Ba(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		(AsO
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		·10H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.05Kahlerite
    Fe(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		(AsO
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		·12H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.05Nováčekite
    Mg(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		(AsO
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		·12H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.05Saléeite
    Mg(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		·10H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.05Uranocircite
    Ba(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 10H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.05Uranospinite
    Ca(UO
     
    2
    		)(AsO
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		·10H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.05Xiangjiangite
    (Fe
    3+
     
    		,Al)(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    4
    		[OH|(SO
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		|(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		] · 22H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.05Zeunerite
    Cu(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		(AsO
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		·12H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.10Bassetite
    Fe
    2+
     
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 8H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.10Lehnerite
    Mn
    2+
     
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 8H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.10Meta-autunite
    Ca(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		· 6-8H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.10Metasaléeite
    Mg(UO
     
    2
    		)(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		·8H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.10Metauranocircite
    Ba(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 7H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.10Metauranospinite
    Ca(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[AsO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 8H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.10Metaheinrichite
    Ba(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[AsO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 8H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.10Metakahlerite
    Fe
    2+
     
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[AsO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 8H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.10Metakirchheimerite
    Co(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[AsO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 8H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.10Metanováčekite
    Mg(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[AsO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 4-8H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.10Metatorbernite
    Cu(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 8H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.10Metazeunerite
    Cu(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[AsO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 8H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.10Przhevalskite
    Pb
     
    2
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    3
    		[(OH)
     
    2
    		|PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 3H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.10Meta-lodèvite
    8.EB.15Abernathyite
    K
     
    2
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[AsO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 6H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.15Chernikovite
    (H
     
    3
    		O)
     
    2
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 6H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.15Meta-ankoleite
    K
     
    2
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 6H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.15Natrouranospinite
    (Na
     
    2
    		,Ca)(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[AsO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 5H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.15Trögerite
    (UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    3
    		(AsO
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		·12H
     
    2
    		O (?)
    8.EB.15Uramphite
    (NH
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 6H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.15Uramarsite
    (NH
     
    4
    		,H
     
    3
    		O)
     
    2
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[(AsO
     
    4
    		,PO
     
    4
    		)]
     
    2
    		 · 6H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.20Threadgoldite
    Al(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[OH|(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		] · 8H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.20Chistyakovaite
    Al(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[(F,OH)|(AsO
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		] · 6.5H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.25Arsenuranospathite
    HAl(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    4
    		(AsO
     
    4
    		)
     
    4
    		·40H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.25Sabugalite
    HAl(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    4
    		(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    4
    		·16H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.25Uranospathite
    HAl(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    4
    		(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    4
    		·40H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.30Vochtenite
    (Fe
    2+
     
    		,Mg)Fe
    3+
     
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    4
    		[OH|(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    4
    		] · 12-13H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.35Coconinoite
    Fe
    3+
    2
    		Al
     
    2
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[(OH)
     
    2
    		|SO
     
    4
    		|(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    4
    		] · 20H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.40Ranunculite
    HAlUO
     
    2
    		PO
     
    4
    		(OH)
     
    3
    		·4H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.45Triangulite
    Al
     
    3
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    4
    		(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    4
    		(OH)
     
    5
    		·5H
     
    2
    		O
    8.EB.50Furongite
    Al
     
    13
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    7
    		(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    13
    		(OH)
     
    14
    		 · 58H
     
    2
    		O
    Related Minerals - Hey's Index Grouping:
    19.11.1Lermontovite
    UPO
     
    4
    		·OH·H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.2Metavanmeersscheite
    U
    4+
     
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    3
    		[(OH)
     
    2
    		|PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 2H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.3Vanmeersscheite
    U
    4+
     
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    3
    		[(OH)
     
    2
    		|PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 4H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.4Chernikovite
    (H
     
    3
    		O)
     
    2
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 6H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.5Vyacheslavite
    UPO
     
    4
    		(OH)·nH
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.6Metanatroautunite
    NaUO
     
    2
    		PO
     
    4
    		·4H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.7Yingjiangite
    (K,Ca)(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    3
    		[OH|(H
     
    2
    		O,OH)|(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		] · 3H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.8Meta-ankoleite
    K
     
    2
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 6H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.9Uramphite
    (NH
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 6H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.11Metatorbernite
    Cu(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 8H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.12Saléeite
    Mg(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		·10H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.13Ningyoite
    CaU(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		·1-2H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.14Meta-autunite
    Ca(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		· 6-8H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.15Autunite
    Ca(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		·11H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.16Pseudo-autunite
    (H
     
    3
    		O)
     
    4
    		Ca
     
    2
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    4
    		 · 5H
     
    2
    		O (?)
    19.11.17Phurcalite
    Ca
     
    2
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    3
    		[O|PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 7H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.18Phosphuranylite
    (H
     
    3
    		O)
     
    3
    		KCa(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    7
    		[O|PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    4
    		 · 8H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.19Ulrichite
    CaCu(UO
     
    2
    		)[PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 4H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.20Bergenite
    Ca
     
    2
    		Ba
     
    4
    		[(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    3
    		O
     
    2
    		(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		]
     
    3
    		·16H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.21Metauranocircite
    Ba(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 7H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.22Uranocircite
    Ba(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 10H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.23Ranunculite
    HAlUO
     
    2
    		PO
     
    4
    		(OH)
     
    3
    		·4H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.24Triangulite
    Al
     
    3
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    4
    		(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    4
    		(OH)
     
    5
    		·5H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.25Mundite
    Al(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    3
    		[(OH)
     
    3
    		|(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		] · 5.5H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.26Upalite
    Al(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    3
    		(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		O(OH)·7H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.27Furongite
    Al
     
    13
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    7
    		(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    13
    		(OH)
     
    14
    		 · 58H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.28Threadgoldite
    Al(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[OH|(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		] · 8H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.29Phuralumite
    Al
     
    2
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    3
    		[(OH)
     
    2
    		|(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    3
    		] · 13H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.30Moreauite
    Al
     
    3
    		UO
     
    2
    		(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    3
    		(OH)
     
    2
    		·13H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.31Sabugalite
    HAl(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    4
    		(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    4
    		·16H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.32Uranospathite
    HAl(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    4
    		(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    4
    		·40H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.33Althupite
    AlTh(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    7
    		[O
     
    2
    		|(OH)
     
    5
    		|(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    4
    		] · 15H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.34Françoisite-(Nd)
    (Nd,Ce,Sm)(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    3
    		[O|OH|(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		] · 6H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.35Kivuite
    H
     
    2
    		Th(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    3
    		[O|OH|(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    2
    		] · 6H
     
    2
    		O (?)
    19.11.36Parsonsite
    Pb
     
    2
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)[PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 2H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.37Dewindtite
    Pb(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    3
    		[OH|PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 3H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.38Dumontite
    Pb
     
    2
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    3
    		[(OH)
     
    2
    		|PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 3H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.39Przhevalskite
    Pb
     
    2
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    3
    		[(OH)
     
    2
    		|PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 3H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.40Lehnerite
    Mn
    2+
     
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 8H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.41Bassetite
    Fe
    2+
     
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    2
    		[PO
     
    4
    		]
     
    2
    		 · 8H
     
    2
    		O
    19.11.42Vochtenite
    (Fe
    2+
     
    		,Mg)Fe
    3+
     
    		(UO
     
    2
    		)
     
    4
    		[OH|(PO
     
    4
    		)
     
    4
    		] · 12-13H
     
    2
    		O

    Other Names for Torbernite

    Synonyms:
    ChalcoliteChalkoliteCopper UraniteCuprouraniteOrthotorbernite
    Phosphate of Uranium and CopperPhosphate of Uranium containing Phosphate of CopperTorberiteUraniteUran-mica
    French names:
    Urane oxydé
    German names:
    ChalkolithCuprouranitGrüner GlimmerKupferautunitKupferphosphoruranit
    Kupfer-UranitOrthotorbernitTorberitTorbernitUranglimmer
    Urankalk durch Kupfer gefärbtUranphyllit
    Latin names:
    Mica viridis cryst.Uranites spathosus
    Spanish names:
    OrthotorbernitaTorbernita

    Other Information

    Fluorescence in UV light:Not fluorescent. (Epitaxial intergrowths with other uranyl mica may fluoresce, however.)
    Other Information:Radioactive. H2O content varies with relative humidity. Soluble in acids.
    Health Warning:Contains uranium - always wash hands after handling. Avoid inhaling dust when handling or breaking. Never lick or ingest. Avoid prolonged exposure in proximity of the body. Store away from inhabited areas.

    References for Torbernite

    Reference List:Born, Ignatz Edler von (1772): Index Fossilium, quae collegit, et in Classes ac Ordines disposuit Ignatius Eques a Born (Lithophylacium Bornianum).- Prag, Wolfgang Gerle, p. 42 (as viridis cryst.).

    Werner, A.G. (1780): Axel von Cronstedts Versuch einer Mineralogie. Aufs neue aus dem Schwedischen übersetzt und nächst verschiedenen Anmerkungen vorzüglich mit äussern Beschreibungen der Fossilien vermehrt.- Leipzig, bei Siegfried Leberecht Crusius, p. 217-218 (as Grüner Glimmer).

    Klaproth (1789) Schrift. Ges. Nat. Berlin: 9: 273 (as Urankalk durch Kupfer gefärbt).

    Werner (1789) Bergmaennisches Journal, Freiberg (Neues Bergmännisches Journal): 376 (as Chalkolith).

    Karsten, D.L.G. (1793) Über Herrn Werners Verbesserungen in der Mineralogie auf veranlassung der freimüthigen Gedanken, etc., des Herrn Abbé Estner. 80pp., Berlin: 43 (as Torberit).

    Klaproth, M.H. (1797) Beiträge zur chemischen Kenntniss der Mineralkörpers. vol. 2: 217 (as Uranites spathosus).

    Werner (1800) (as Uranglimmer).

    Haüy, R.J. (1801) Traité de minéralogie. First edition: in 4 volumes with atlas in fol.: 4: 319 (as Urane oxydé).

    Ludwig, C.F. (1803) Handbuch der Mineralogie nach A.G. Werner. 2 volumes, Leipzig: 1: 55 (as Uranglimmer), 308 (as Torbernit).

    Aikin, A. (1814) Manual of Mineralogy, 8 volumes, London, first edition (as Uranite).

    Breithaupt, A. (1820) Kurze Charakteristik des Mineral-System’s. 8vo, Freiberg (as Uranphyllit).

    Jameson, R. (1820) A System of Mineralogy, third edition, 3 volumes (as Uran-Mica).

    Berzelius (1823) Jahresber. (as Phosphate of Uranium and Copper)

    Phillips, R. (1823) Annals of philosophy, London: 5: 57 (as Phosphate of Uranium containing Phosphate of Copper).

    Brooke, H.J. and Miller, W.H. (1852) Introduction to Mineralogy by Wm. Phillips, London, 1823. New edition by Brooke and Miller. 8vo, London: 517 (as Torberite).

    Breithaupt (1865) Berg.- und hüttenmännisches Zeitung, Freiberg, Leipzig (merged into Glückauf): 24: 302 (as Cuprouranit).

    Schrauf (1872) Mineralogische und petrographische Mitteilungen, Vienna: 181.

    Winkler (1873) Journal für praktische Chemie, Leipzig: 7: 10.

    Dana, E.S. (1892) System of Mineralogy, 6th. Edition, New York: 856.

    Walker (1898) American Journal of Science: 6: 41.

    Rinne (1901) Centralblatt für Mineralogie, Geologie und Paleontologie, Stuttgart: 618.

    Buchholz (1903) Centralblatt für Mineralogie, Geologie und Paleontologie, Stuttgart: 362.

    Millosevich (1912) Reale accademia nazionale dei Lincei, Rome, Rend.: 21: 594.

    Hallimond (1916) Mineralogical Magazine: 17: 326.

    Forjaz (1917) Comptes rendu de l’Académie des sciences de Paris: 164: 102.

    Heinrich (1917) Journal für praktische Chemie, Leipzig: 96: 73.

    Goldschmidt, V. (1918) Atlas der Krystallformen. 9 volumes, atlas, and text: vol. 5: 101.

    Hallimond (1920) Mineralogical Magazine: 19: 43.

    Larsen, E.S. (1921) The Microscopic Determination of the Nonopaque Minerals, First edition, USGS Bulletin 679: 195.

    Steinkuhler (1923) Bull. soc. chim. Belgique: 253, 270.

    Hintze, Carl (1931) Handbuch der Mineralogie. Berlin and Leipzig. 6 volumes: 1 [4B]: 993.

    Goldsztaub (1932) Bulletin de la Société française de Minéralogie: 55: 7.

    Meixner (1940) Chemie der Erde, Jena: 12: 433.

    Palache, C., Berman, H., & Frondel, C. (1951), The System of Mineralogy of James Dwight Dana and Edward Salisbury Dana, Yale University 1837-1892, Volume II. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 7th edition, revised and enlarged, 1124 pp.: 981-984.

    US Geological Survey Bulletin (1956), 1036-G, 138.

    American Mineralogist (1957): 42: 905-908

    Frondel, C. (1958) Systematic mineralogy of uranium and thorium. US Geological Survey Bulletin (1958): 1064: 170-177.

    American Mineralogist (1964): 49: 1578-1602.

    American Mineralogist (1965): 50: 1-12.

    Anthony, J.W., Bideaux, R.A., Bladh, K.W., and Nichols, M.C. (2000) Handbook of Mineralogy, Volume IV. Arsenates, Phosphates, Vanadates. Mineral Data Publishing, Tucson, AZ, 680pp.: 594.

    Locock, A. J. & Burns, P. C. (2003d): Crystal structures and synthesis of the copper-dominant members of the autunite and meta-autunite groups: torbernite, zeunerite, metatorbernite and metazeunerite. Canadian Mineralogist: 41: 489-502.

    Burns, P.C. (2005) U 6+ minerals and inorganic compounds: insights into an expanded structural hierarchy of crystal structures. Canadian Mineralogist: 43: 1839-1894.

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