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Elasmobranchii

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Carcharodon megalodon

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Calvert Cliffs, Calvert County, Maryland, USA

Carcharodon megalodon

North Carolina, USA

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Carcharodon megalodon

Calvert Cliffs, Calvert County, Maryland, USA

Carcharodon megalodon

North Carolina, USA

Carcharodon megalodon

South Carolina, USA

Description

Elasmobranchii is a subclass of Chondrichthyes or cartilaginous fish, including the sharks (superorder Selachii) and the rays, skates, and sawfish (superorder Batoidea). Members of this subclass are characterised by having five to seven pairs of gill clefts opening individually to the exterior, rigid dorsal fins and small placoid scales on the skin. The teeth are in several series; the upper jaw is not fused to the cranium, and the lower jaw is articulated with the upper. The details of this jaw anatomy vary between species, and help distinguish the different elasmobranch clades. The pelvic fins in males are modified to create claspers for the transfer of sperm. There is no swim bladder; instead, these fish maintain buoyancy with large livers rich in oil.

From Wikipedia article at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elasmobranchii, which is released under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0.

Source Data

Source	ID	Link
Global Biodiversity Information Facility ID (GBIF)	121	https://www.gbif.org/species/121
PaleoBioDB ID (PBDB)	54499	https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=54499

Rank

class (GBIF)
subclass (PBDB)

Taxonomy (GBIF)

Life : Animalia : Chordata : Elasmobranchii

Taxonomy (PBDB)

Life : Animalia : Chordata : Chondrichthyes : Elasmobranchii

Taxonomic Status (GBIF)

accepted

Classification
(PBDB,GBIF)

Rank	Name	Author
-	Eukaryota
-	Opisthokonta	Cavalier-Smith 1987
kingdom	Animalia
-	Triploblastica	Lankester 1877
-	Nephrozoa	Jondelius et al. 2002
-	Deuterostomia	Grobben 1908
phylum	Chordata	Haeckel 1847
subphylum	Vertebrata	Lamarck 1801
superclass	Gnathostomata	Gegenbauer 1874
class	Chondrichthyes	Huxley 1880
class	Elasmobranchii	Bonaparte 1838

Common Name

elasmobranch

Scientific Name

Elasmobranchii

Opinions (PBDB)

Name	Rank	Opinion	Evidence	Author
Elasmobranchii	unranked clade	belongs to Pisces	stated with evidence	Gadow, 1898
Elasmobranchii	class	belongs to Vertebrata	stated without evidence	Hay, 1902
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Pisces	stated without evidence	Eastman, 1904
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	stated without evidence	Fedorowski, 1912
Elasmobranchii	unranked clade	belongs to Pisces	stated without evidence	Bryant, 1932
Elasmobranchii	unranked clade	belongs to Gnathostomata	stated without evidence	Säve-Söderbergh, 1934
Elasmobranchii	class	belongs to Vertebrata	stated without evidence	Jordan, 1963
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	stated without evidence	Daly, 1973
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	stated with evidence	Zangerl, 1981
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	stated without evidence	Thurmond and Jones, 1981
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	stated with evidence	Duffin and Ward, 1983
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	stated without evidence	Squires, 1984
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	stated with evidence	Schultze, 1985
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	stated without evidence	Lund, 1985
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	implied	Murry, 1989
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	stated with evidence	Kindlimann, 1990
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	stated without evidence	Cappetta, 1992
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	stated with evidence	Duffin, 1993
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	stated without evidence	Long et al., 1993
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	stated with evidence	Johns, 1997
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	implied	Heidtke, 1998
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	stated with evidence	Duffin, 1998
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	stated without evidence	Williams, 1998
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	stated with evidence	Ivanov, 1999
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	stated without evidence	Marss and Gagnier, 2001
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	stated with evidence	Delsate, 2003
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	stated without evidence	Duncan, 2003
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	stated with evidence	Yamagishi, 2004
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	stated without evidence	Duncan, 2004
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	stated with evidence	Ginter et al., 2010
Elasmobranchii	subclass	belongs to Chondrichthyes	stated without evidence	Cook et al., 2011
Elasmobranchii	unranked clade	belongs to Euselachii	stated without evidence	Ebersole et al., 2019

Status (PBDB)

extant

Taxon Size (PBDB)

2,898

Extant Size (PBDB)

340 (12%)

First Recorded Appearance

443 - 423 Ma
Silurian

Environment

marine (based on Vertebrata)

Motility

actively mobile (based on Chondrichthyes)

Diet

carnivore (based on Chondrichthyes)

Taphonomy

phosphatic (based on Vertebrata)

Primary Reference (PBDB)

M. J. Everhart. 2004. First record of the hybodont shark genus, "Polyacrodus" sp., (Chondrichthyes; Polyacrodontidae) from the Kiowa Formation (Lower Cretaceous) of McPherson County, Kansas. Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science 107(1/2):83-87

Common Name(s)

Hajartade Fiskar, Kraakbeenvissen, 板鰓, Elasmobranch

Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elasmobranchii

External Images

Subtaxa

Name	Status	Common Name(s)	Fossil Occurrences	Oldest	Youngest
Selachii subclass	listed (PBDB)	Shark	48	426 Ma Silurian	0 Ma Extant
Cladoselachimorpha infraclass	listed (PBDB)		1	372 Ma Late/Upper Devonian	372 Ma Late/Upper Devonian
Euselachii infraclass	listed (PBDB)		10,675	409 Ma Early/Lower Devonian	0 Ma Extant
Osteodonti infraclass	listed (PBDB)		387	122 Ma Early/Lower Cretaceous	0 Ma Extant
Xenacanthimorpha infraclass	listed (PBDB)		206	408 Ma Early/Lower Devonian	101 Ma Late/Upper Cretaceous
Cladodontomorphi ✝ superorder	listed (PBDB)		161	383 Ma Late/Upper Devonian	23.0 Ma Miocene
Cladoselachii ✝ superorder	listed (PBDB)
Pristiorajea ✝ superorder	listed (PBDB)
Selachimorpha superorder	listed (PBDB)		283	165 Ma Middle Jurassic	0 Ma Extant
Antarctilamniformes ✝ order	listed (PBDB)		3	419 Ma Early/Lower Devonian	383 Ma Late/Upper Devonian
Carcharhiniformes order	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)	Ground Shark	1,878	209 Ma Late/Upper Triassic	0 Ma Extant
Cladodontida ✝ order	listed (PBDB)		3	383 Ma Late/Upper Devonian	331 Ma Carboniferous
Cladoselachida ✝ order	listed (PBDB)
Coronodontida ✝ order	listed (PBDB)
Galeiformes order	listed (PBDB)				0 Ma Extant
Heterodontiformes order	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)	Bullhead Shark	143	359 Ma Late/Upper Devonian	0 Ma Extant
Hexanchiformes order	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		234	269 Ma Permian	0 Ma Extant
Lamniformes order	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)	Mackerel Shark	2,837	209 Ma Late/Upper Triassic	0 Ma Extant
Myliobatiformes order	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)	Stingray	1,516	161 Ma Jurassic	0 Ma Extant
Omalodontiformes ✝ order	listed (PBDB)		4	388 Ma Middle Devonian	384 Ma Middle Devonian
Orectolobiformes order	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)	Carpet Shark	447	237 Ma Middle Triassic	0 Ma Extant
Orodontida ✝ order	listed (PBDB)
Phoebodontiformes ✝ order	listed (PBDB)		25	388 Ma Middle Devonian	228 Ma Late/Upper Triassic
Plagiostomi order	listed (PBDB)		166	409 Ma Early/Lower Devonian	0 Ma Extant
Pleuracanthodii ✝ order	listed (PBDB)
Pristiophoriformes order	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)	Saw Shark	87	86.3 Ma Late/Upper Cretaceous	0 Ma Extant
Proselachii ✝ order	listed (PBDB)
Rajiformes order	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)	Ray	407	209 Ma Late/Upper Triassic	0 Ma Extant
Rhinopristiformes order	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		262	161 Ma Jurassic	0 Ma Extant
Squaliformes order	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		122	165 Ma Middle Jurassic	0 Ma Extant
Squatinida ✝ order	listed (PBDB)
Squatiniformes order	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		157	164 Ma Middle Jurassic	0 Ma Extant
Torpediniformes order	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)	Electric Ray	15	56.0 Ma Paleocene	0 Ma Extant
Xenacanthida ✝ order	listed (PBDB)
Cestraciontidae family	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)	Bullhead Shark	2	354 Ma Carboniferous	0 Ma Extant
Kannathalepididae ✝ family	listed (PBDB)		1	443 Ma Silurian	443 Ma Silurian
Listracanthidae ✝ family	listed (PBDB)		14	326 Ma Carboniferous	251 Ma Early/Lower Triassic
Pleuracanthidae family	listed (PBDB)
Protodontidae ✝ family	listed (PBDB)		1	411 Ma Early/Lower Devonian	411 Ma Early/Lower Devonian
Pseudodalatiidae ✝ family	listed (PBDB)		39	242 Ma Middle Triassic	209 Ma Late/Upper Triassic
Annulicorona ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		2	235 Ma Late/Upper Triassic	235 Ma Late/Upper Triassic
Aporomicrodus genus	listed (PBDB)				0 Ma Extant
Arduodens ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)
Carcharopsis ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		6	359 Ma Late/Upper Devonian	326 Ma Carboniferous
Carinasubcorona ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		7	235 Ma Late/Upper Triassic	228 Ma Late/Upper Triassic
Celtiberina ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)
Changxingselache ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		2	254 Ma Permian	254 Ma Permian
Complanicorona ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		35	247 Ma Early/Lower Triassic	228 Ma Late/Upper Triassic
Coniunctio ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		20	242 Ma Middle Triassic	237 Ma Middle Triassic
Fragilicorona ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		68	251 Ma Early/Lower Triassic	216 Ma Late/Upper Triassic
Glabrisubcorona ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		53	242 Ma Middle Triassic	209 Ma Late/Upper Triassic
Gondwanodus ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		1	296 Ma Permian	296 Ma Permian
Labascicorona ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		80	247 Ma Early/Lower Triassic	228 Ma Late/Upper Triassic
Labrilancea ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		12	242 Ma Middle Triassic	235 Ma Late/Upper Triassic
Leonodus ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)
Lesnilomia ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)
Lobaticorona ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		46	242 Ma Middle Triassic	228 Ma Late/Upper Triassic
Meishanselache ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		1	254 Ma Permian	254 Ma Permian
Minuticorona ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		10	242 Ma Middle Triassic	232 Ma Late/Upper Triassic
Oniscina ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		1	315 Ma Carboniferous	315 Ma Carboniferous
Ornathiliabrilance ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		1	235 Ma Late/Upper Triassic	235 Ma Late/Upper Triassic
Ornatilabrilancea ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		18	242 Ma Middle Triassic	228 Ma Late/Upper Triassic
Parvicorona ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		3	235 Ma Late/Upper Triassic	235 Ma Late/Upper Triassic
Parvidiabolus ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		40	247 Ma Early/Lower Triassic	237 Ma Middle Triassic
Parviscapha ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		10	242 Ma Middle Triassic	237 Ma Middle Triassic
Plesioselachus ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		1	383 Ma Late/Upper Devonian	383 Ma Late/Upper Devonian
Raineria ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		1	209 Ma Late/Upper Triassic	209 Ma Late/Upper Triassic
Rugosicorona ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		7	228 Ma Late/Upper Triassic	228 Ma Late/Upper Triassic
Sacrisubcorona ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		31	242 Ma Middle Triassic	228 Ma Late/Upper Triassic
Serratocorona ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		1	235 Ma Late/Upper Triassic	235 Ma Late/Upper Triassic
Siamodus ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)
Suaviloquentia ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		25	242 Ma Middle Triassic	228 Ma Late/Upper Triassic
Undulaticorona ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		16	242 Ma Middle Triassic	237 Ma Middle Triassic
Euselachiformes unranked clade	listed (PBDB)		3	83.6 Ma Late/Upper Cretaceous	0 Ma Extant
Ichthyodorulites ✝ unranked clade	listed (PBDB)		7	359 Ma Late/Upper Devonian	359 Ma Late/Upper Devonian

Synonymy List

Year	Name and Author
1838	Elasmobranchii Bonaparte
1898	Elasmobranchii Gadow p. 5
1902	Elasmobranchii Hay p. 262
1904	Elasmobranchii Eastman p. 71
1906	Elasmobranchii Andrews p. 317
1912	Elasmobranchii Fedorowski p. 55
1921	Cladodus wildungensis Jaekel
1932	Elasmobranchii Bryant p. 232
1934	Elasmobranchii Säve-Söderbergh p. 17
1937	Cladodus hassiacus Gross
1963	Elasmobranchii Jordan p. 590
1973	Elasmobranchii Daly p. 564
1979	Elasmobranchii Case p. 79
1981	Elasmobranchii Thurmond and Jones p. 36
1981	Elasmobranchii Zangerl p. 50
1983	Elasmobranchii Duffin and Ward p. 839
1983	Elasmobranchii Thies p. 10
1984	Elasmobranchii Squires p. 56
1985	Elasmobranchii Lund p. 2
1985	Elasmobranchii Schultze p. 6 figs. 2-3
1985	Elasmobranchii Williams p. 88
1987	Elasmobranchii Cappetta p. 27
1987	Elasmobranchii Kumar and Loyal p. 62
1988	Elasmobranchii Case and Schwimmer p. 291
1989	Elasmobranchii Murry p. 250
1990	Elasmobranchii Kindlimann p. 834
1992	Elasmobranchii Cappetta p. 640
1992	Elasmobranchii Long p. 14
1993	Elasmobranchii Duffin p. 7
1993	Elasmobranchii Long et al. p. 655
1996	Elasmobranchii Dica et al. p. 118
1997	Elasmobranchii Johns p. 29
1998	Elasmobranchii Duffin p. 160

Year	Name and Author
1998	Elasmobranchii Heidtke p. 137
1998	Elasmobranchii Williams p. 251
1999	Elasmobranchii Ivanov p. 271
2001	Elasmobranchii Duffin
2001	Elasmobranchii Marss and Gagnier
2001	Elasmobranchii Peng et al. p. 5
2001	Elasmobranchii Williams p. 215
2003	Elasmobranchii Delsate p. 4
2003	Elasmobranchii Duncan p. 114
2004	Elasmobranchii Duncan p. 419
2004	Elasmobranchii Everhart
2004	Elasmobranchii Yamagishi p. 566
2005	Elasmobranchii Kriwet
2006	Elasmobranchii Chandler et al. p. 2
2007	Elasmobranchii Carnevale p. 6
2007	Elasmobranchii Everhart p. 226
2007	Elasmobranchii Kriwet et al.
2007	Elasmobranchii Marsili et al. p. 30
2008	Elasmobranchii Adnet et al. p. 713
2008	Elasmobranchii Chrzastek p. 228
2008	Elasmobranchii Hairapetian et al. p. 174
2008	Elasmobranchii Kriwet p. 236
2008	Elasmobranchii Pereira and Medeiros p. 209
2009	Elasmobranchii Ehret et al. p. 3
2009	Elasmobranchii Kriwet et al. p. 320
2010	Elasmobranchii Ginter et al. p. 27
2011	Elasmobranchii Cook et al.
2011	Elasmobranchii Long p. 242
2012	Elasmobranchii Ehret et al. p. 1145
2012	Elasmobranchii Soto et al.
2013	Elasmobranchii Pinheiro et al.
2017	Elasmobranchii Engelbrecht et al. p. 2
2019	Elasmobranchii Ebersole et al. p. 15

References

Everhart M. J. (2004) First record of the hybodont shark genus, "Polyacrodus" sp., (Chondrichthyes; Polyacrodontidae) from the Kiowa Formation (Lower Cretaceous) of McPherson County, Kansas, Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science 107 1/2, 83-87

Gadow H. , A Classification of Vertebrata Recent and Extinct, xvii-82

Hay O. P. (1902) , Bibliography and Catalogue of the Fossil Vertebrata of North America. Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey 179, 1-868

Eastman C. R. (1904) Systematic Paleontology: Pisces, Maryland Geological Survey Miocene, Text, 71-93

Andrews C. W. (1906) , A Descriptive Catalogue of the Tertiary Vertebrata of Fayum, Egypt, 1-324

Fedorowski J. A. (1912) Zeuglodon-Reste aus dem Kreise Zmijew, Gouvernement Charkow, Arbeiten der Naturforscher-Gesellschaft an der Kaiserlichen Universitat Charkow 45, 253-287

Bryant W. L. (1932) Lower Devonian Fishes of Bear Tooth Butte, Wyoming, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 71 5, 225-254

Säve-Söderbergh G. (1934) Some points of view concerning the evolution of the Vertebrates and the classification of this group, Arkiv för Zoologi 26A 17, 1-20

Jordan D. S. (1963) The Genera of Fishes and a Classification of Fishes, Stanford University Press, 1-816

Daly E. (1973) A Lower Permian vertebrate fauna from southern Oklahoma, Journal of Paleontology 47 3, 562-589

Case G. R. (1979) Cretaceous selachians from the Peedee Formation (Late Maestrichtian) of Duplin County, North Carolina, Brimleyana 2, 77-89

Thurmond J. T., Jones D. E. (1981) , Fossil Vertebrates of Alabama, 1-244

Zangerl R. (1981) Chondrichthyes I: Paleozoic Elasmobranchii, Handbook of Paleoichthyology 3a

Duffin C. J., Ward D. J. (1983) Teeth of a new neoselachian shark from the British Lower Jurassic, Palaeontology 26 4, 839-844

Thies D. (1983) Jurazeitliche Neoselachier aus Deutschland und S-England (Jurassic neoselachians from German and S-England), Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg 58, 1-116

Squires R. L. (1984) Megapaleontology of the Eocene Llajas Formation, Simi Valley, California, Contributions in Science, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County 350, 1-76

Lund R. (1985) The morphology of Falcatus falcatus (St. John and Worthen), a Mississippian stethacanthid chondrichthyan from the Bear Gulch Limestone of Montana, Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 5 1, 1-19

Schultze H. (1985) Marine to Onshore Vertebrates in the Lower Permian of Kansas and their Paleoenvironmental Implications, University of Kansas Paleontological Contributions 113, 1-18

Williams M. E. (1985) The "Cladodont level" sharks of the Pennsylvanian black shales of central North America, Palaeontographica Abteilung A 190, 83-158

Cappetta H. (1987) , Handbook of Paleoichthyology: Chondrichthyes II Mesozoic and Cenozoic Elasmobranchii, 1-193

Kumar K., Loyal R. S. (1987) Eocene ichthyofauna from the Subathu Formation, Northwestern Himalaya, India., Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India 32, 60-84

Case G. R., Schwimmer D. R. (1988) Late Cretaceous Fish from the Blufftown Formation (Campanian) in Western Georgia, Journal of Paleontology 62 2, 290-301

Murry P. A. (1989) Microvertebrate fossils from the Petrified Forest and Owl Rock Members (Chinle Formation) in Petrified Forest National Park and vicinity, Arizona, Dawn of the Age of Dinosaurs in the American Southwest, New Mexico Museum of Natural History, Albuquerque, 249-277

Kindlimann R. (1990) Ein Nachweis von Acrodus nobilis Agassiz aus dem Sinemurien der Tongrube Gruhalde, Frick, Kt. Aargau (Nordschweiz), Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae 83, 829-843

Cappetta H. (1992) Carcharhiniformes nouveaux (Chondrichthyes, Neoselachii) de l'Ypresien du Bassin de Paris, Geobios 25 2, 639-646 doi:10.1016/0016-6995(92)80103-K

Long D. J. (1992) Sharks from the La Meseta Formation (Eocene), Seymour Island, Antarctic Peninsula, Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 12 1, 11-32

Duffin C. J. (1993) Late Triassic sharks teeth (Chondrichthyes, Elasmobranchii) from Saint-Nicolas-de-Port (north-east France), Belgian Geological Survey, Professional Paper, Elasmobranches et Stratigraphie 264 1993, 7-32

Long D. J., Murphy M. A., et al (1993) A New World occurrence of Notidanodon lanceolatus (Chondrichthyes, Hexanchidae) and comments on hexanchid shark evolution, Journal of Paleontology 67 4, 655-659

Dica P., Ciobanu R., et al (1996) Some new batoids (Pisces, Chondrichthyes) from the late Eocene (Priabonian) of Cluj-Napoca Area, Studia Universitatis Babes-Bolyai, Geologia 41 2, 117-125

Johns M. J. (1997) Systematics, in Taxonomy and Biostratigraphy of middle and late Triassic Elasmobranch Ichthyoliths from Northeastern British Columbia, Geological Survey of Canada Bulletin 502, 1-238

Duffin C. J. (1998) New shark remains from the British Rhaetian (latest Triassic) 1. The earliest basking shark, Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie Monatshefte 3, 157-181

Williams M. E. (1998) A new specimen of Tamiobatis vetustus (Chondrichthyes, Ctenacanthoidea) from the Late Devonian Cleveland Shale of Ohio, Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 18 2, 251-260

Ivanov A. (1999) Late Devonian - Early Permian chondrichthyans of the Russian Arctic, Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 49 3, 267-285

Duffin C. J. (2001) The hybodont shark, Priohybodus d'Erasmo, 1960, (Early Cretaceous, northern Africa), Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 133, 303-308

Marss T., Gagnier P. Y. (2001) A new chondrichthyan from the Wenlock, Lower Silurian, of Baillie-Hamilton Island, the Canadian Arctic, Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 21 4, 693-701

Peng J., Russell A. P., et al (2001) Vertebrate microsite assemblages (exclusive of mammals) from the Foremost and Oldman Formations of the Judith River Group (Campanian) of southeastern Alberta: an illustrated guide, Provincial Museum of Alberta, Natural History Occasional Paper 25, 1-54

Williams M. E. (2001) Tooth retention in cladodont sharks: with a comparison between primitive grasping and swallowing, and modern cutting and gouging feeding mechanisms, Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 21 2, 214-226

Delsate D. (2003) Une nouvelle faune des poissons et requins Toarciens du sud du Luxembourg (Dudelange) et de L'Allemange (Schömberg), Bulletin de l'Académie Lorrain des Sciences 42, 13-49

Duncan M. (2003) Early Carboniferous chondrichthyan Thrinacodus from Ireland, and a reconstruction of jaw apparatus, Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 48 1, 113-122

Duncan M. (2004) Chondrichthyan genus Lissodus from the Lower Carboniferous of Ireland, Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 49 3, 417-428

Yamagishi H. (2004) Elasmobranch remains from the Taho Limestone (Lower-Middle Triassic) of Ehime Prefecture, Southwest Japan, Mesozoic Fishes 3 - Systematics, Paleoenvironments and Biodiversity 3, 565-574

Kriwet J. (2005) Additions to the Eocene Selachian Fauna of Antarctica with Comments on Antarctic Selachian Diversity, Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 25 1, 1-7

Chandler R. E., Chiswell K. E., et al (2006) Quantifying a possible Miocene phyletic change in Hemipristis (Chondrichthyes) teeth, Palaeontologia Electronica 9 1, 1-14

Carnevale G. (2007) Fossil fishes from the Serravallian (Middle Miocene) of Torricella Peligna, Italy, Palaeontographia Italica 91, 1-67

Everhart M. J. (2007) New stratigraphic records (Albian-Campanian) of Rhinobatos sp. (Chondrichthyes; Rajiformes) from the Cretaceous of Kansas, Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science 110 3/4, 225-235

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Van Der Laan, R.; Eschmeyer, W. N.; Fricke, R. (2014). Family-group names of Recent fishes. Zootaxa. 3882(1): 1-230. - via World Register of Marine Species

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